I.
CRITIC
THEORIES (Jurgen Habermas)
THEORY
1.
EMPIRICAL HISTORY PHILOSOPHY WITH PRACTICAL PURPOSES
Habermas's
conception of critical theory experienced significant development since the
early work ( 1957 ) " literaturbericht zur Diskussion um philosophischen
Marx unden marxismus " until the work was written later ( 1976 ) zur reconstruktion
des historischen materialism . Intersection with analytical
philosophy of science led to the renewal of thought, as can be seen in the
debate that he did with the pioneering philosophical hermeneutics . Recently, a
preliminary sketch of communication theory , assimilation with contemporary
systems theory and design programmed on the theory of social evolution marked a
major development in view of the methodological Habermas . However, a number of
common characteristics that the original conception still identifiable in a
statement that the latest : critical social theory is empirical without
reducible to empirical - analytical science , but he is philosophical in the
sense of criticism and not in the sense of first philosophy ; Last , it is
historical without being historicist , and practical nature , but not in the
sense of potential technological mastery -oriented but rather in the sense of
enlightenment and emancipation .
Based on the
previous discussion about how Habermas's view of philosophy , it is surprising
that she was initially attracted to the idea of the philosophy of history to
explain the critical theory , because the philosophy of history is the most
philosophical territory speculative .
Example : if
people realize that the first discussion on this issue shows understood him
with Marx 's dictum that the task of philosophy and the fruit can only be
maintained through a " rejection of the earlier philosophy , that
philosophy as a philosophy , " that philosophy can only be realized
through sublasi . This support shown clear that Habermas does not use the term
philosophy in the traditional sense as a " philosophy of origin " or
" first philosophy " .
By doing so ,
Habermas's philosophy is understood as something that does not show a way of
thinking that deserted modality (presuppositionless ) which is
able to provide a foundation for himself ; nor showed ideals inherent in
philosophy ( truth and reason , freedom and justice ) that can realized by
means of philosophy itself .
Based on this
standpoint , the difference between philosophy and science is determined by the
relation of each to the practice . Technical rationality of science particular on
the contrary , philosophy is universal rationality . The rationality of
philosophy goes beyond the means of the relation because he sets his own and
find his purpose .. practices are not beyond philosophy as happened in relation
to science ; practice even the driving force behind the movement inher
philosophical movement . With a philosophy to develop his thesis is not purely
contemplative and then translate it into practice .. philosophy of life of
uncertainty that is constantly updated in the unresolved tension between theory
and practice , a tension that can only be lost through sublasi philosophy as
philosophy . As in science , philosophy also is particular ; yet universal
rationality ( as a philosophy ) is able to estimate the existing totality ,
without a whole ( to be philosophy ) is able to embrace the totality of the
whole .
2.
UNDERSTANDING AND SOCIAL RESEARCH
In his
methodological writings Habermas analyze all these approaches , and he always
wears a strategy " concrete negation " . He considered each of these
approaches is based on a framework that is claimed to be suitable for a general
theory of society . There are none of these approaches are considered mixed up
and wrong : each Habermas has shown " the truth " certain. At the
same time is considered , which is true according to one approach is not necessarily
considered to be true by other approaches . Thus , which then becomes very
important is to explain the limits of different approaches before, determine
what the situation was , in what way , and for what purpose they can be run
properly . The purpose of this procedure is to establish an integrated
framework in accordance with the general social theory at the same time
retaining the positivist elements contained in earlier approaches .
3.
LANGUAGE , HERMENEUTICS , IDEOLOGY AND FEEDBACK
In the English
-speaking region , a major challenge for neopositivism logic of integrated
science emerged from one of the veins of analytical philosophy itself: the
philosophy of Ludwig Wittgenstein - second . Wittgenstein 's own early work ,
the Tractatus , - so did the logical atomism russel and ideas wina - circle are
the main source of logical positivism . As a number of commentators have noted
, the initial conception is very smelly kantinan . The idea that logic includes
everything that can be said to exceed the experience (ie , a prioiri ) , and
that logic is able to express when uncovering factual discourse structure ,
very similar to the transcendental critique of pure reason kant above . In view
of the perspective - second philosophy of Wittgenstein , language relations
with the world are not theoretical but practical .
Meanwhile, in
the development of hermeneutics , the art of interpreting texts , closely
related to theology and jurisprudence.
In Zur Logik Den Sozialwissenschaften , Gadamer hermeneutical reflection
methodologically placed with her confront the ideas of Wittgenstein and winch
. The fundamental difference between these ideas can be outlined as follows :
1)
Intertran Sibilitas between different natural languages versus " monadologi language
game " .
2)
The paradigm of translation between two languages versus
socialization paradigm into a primary language .
3)
Emphasis to the history and tradition versus reproduction ahistorical and
" cold " to other forms of life .
4)
The theoretical analysis of language attitudes versus practical attitude
hermeneutical effort .
In Gadamer's view , the rejection of the beliefs and values because it is
considered as a pure and simple mistakes are evidence of a failure of
understanding . Habermas accepts , at least in outline , the argument that the
interpreter must relate what would he understand the concrete itself
hermeneutical situation .
According to Habermas , this difficulty is due to absolutization
language and traditions . In order to sue Hegel , Gadamer wants to show the
character limitations and history reflection . " Hegel's understanding of
the reflections are reduced to the awareness that we bring to an event (
tradition ) which changed the terms of rationality is irrational , according to
space and time , epics and culture ."
At first glance, both the debate is no different than the debate between
enlightenment to romanticism in the late 18th century and early 19th century .
4.
PSYCHOANALYSIS AND SOCIAL THEORY
In the preface
of the book Theory and Practice , Habermas regard this criticism as an
opportunity to clarify his own views about the " structuring of political
enlightenment ".
Although critical theory was developed with the aim to initiate and direct the
process of self-reflection and self - emancipation , in itself , this theory
does not explain the names that become targets .
Psychoanalysis
serves to show an outline of the normative goal of enlightenment , that self -
emancipation through self-understanding , efforts to tackle systematically
distorted communication , and fertilizing ability for self-determination
through rational discourse , while also becoming the standard validity of
critical social theory .
5.
SCOPE AND LIMITS OF THEORY FUNGSIONALI
For Habermas
ineligibility functionalist social theory in principle can not be solved as
long as he is still understood as a form of empirical - analytical research.
According to
Habermas , when functionalism serves as a framework for empirical analysis ,
then he should be converted into a historically oriented theory with a
practical purpose , ie, to be a critical social theory
. Habermas argues that the attempt to avoid the assumption of structural
functional analysis takes place within the framework of the theory of
paradoxical expansion of the system .
6.
MATERIALISM HISTORICAL RECONSTRUCTION
Habermas
described the theory of social evolution as a " reconstruction of
historical materialism " . Here means the separate reconstruction theory
and reunite in a new form , in order to achieve the planned objectives for him
.
Habermas argues that capitalist society is the anatomy gives important clues
about the sides forming social formations before and that he serves as a
starting point for the theory of social evolution .
The term
" society " Habermas understood as " all the linguistic system
coordinated through instrumental and social action in order to process and
manage nature - outside in the socialization process .
" And one example of the problem is the philosophy or science of
Contemporary Society , and analysis of contemporary society contains a
practical dimension that can not be avoided anymore . Determination logical
development - level contemporary social organization , as well as an
explanation for the problems inherent in the existing form of reproduction may
be interpreted as an empirical - theoretical task . But since we can not know
how developments in the future will lead to regression , self - disintegration
or destruction of contemporary society or whether it can all be solved with
either the formation of new social and institutional forms that will shape - we
just can project future practical , involve ourselves politically , and
analyzed in a retrospect of the present prospective open perspective for practice
. Thus , for example , analysis of the constellation of power and interests in
the present moment includes hypothetico - practical .
ANALYSIS
Train of thought Habermas in the development
of the modern theory of rationality is a program of communication . The concept
emerged when the scientists began philosophy led to the discovery of a theory
without a practice that later gave birth to Habermas 's theory of discourse .
Discourse is a form of high reflective communication using rational arguments
to reach a consensus without coercion . The other theory is Habermas On the
methodology of critical social theory is empirical without reducible to
empirical - analytic sciences , first he is philosophical but in the sense of
criticism and not in terms of philosophy , and finally , it is historical
without being historicist , and practical but not in terms of potential
technological mastery but rather in the sense of enlightenment and emancipation
orientation . Meanwhile, in the development of hermeneutics , the art of
interpreting texts , closely related to theology and jurisprudence . And there
are many theories developed by Habermas including : psychoanalysis and social
theory , the scope and limits , reconstruction functionalist theory of
historical materialism.
CONCLUSION
Habermas's conception of critical theory
experienced significant development since the early work ( 1957 ) "
literaturbericht zur Diskussion um philosophischen Marx unden marxismus "
until the work was written later ( 1976 ) zur rekonstruktion des historischen
materialism . Contiguity with analytical philosophy of science led to the
renewal of thought, as can be seen in the debate that he did with the
pioneering philosophical hermeneutics . The concept of a critical social theory
is empirical without reducible to empirical - analytical science , but he is
philosophical in the sense of criticism and not in the sense of first
philosophy ; Last , it is historical without being historicist , and practical
nature , but not in the sense of mastery of the technological potential but
rather in the sense of enlightenment and emancipation oriented .
I.
POSTMODERN
(Jean Francois Lyotard)
THEORY
Jean - Francois Lyotard was born in Versailles a small town in the south of
Paris in 1924. His book that made his name well known in France and abroad is
La condition postmoderne sur le savoir - algebra (1979 ) which contains the
answer to the question whether the assumptions underlying politics and science
education in informatics society today is still considered inadequate .
The emergence of the postmodern is the logical implications of a shift and
the shift since the last three decades of industrial society towards a post-
industrial society , and from the modern to the postmodern cultures . Which
has influenced the public's understanding over ideological meanings itself has
undergone a shift . The objects precisely redefined with the new code , the new
aesthetic language , and with new meanings as well . We can observe from the public
now is that people have become consumers .
Postmodern in Lyotard in his book The Postmodern Condition : A Report on
Knowledge (1984 ) which has been cited by Listiyono Santoso ( 2006:322 ) are
the changes in science in advanced industrial societies is due to the influence
of new technologies of information technology , the principle of unity
ontological basis for the underlying ideas of modern philosophy is not relevant
to contemporary realities . The principle of homology ( ontological unity ) it
will shift due to the influence of the enormity of the development of
information technology . For that principle it should delegitimation
by paralogi or pluralist idea .
With the goal of keeping power including science , no longer fall on the
totalitarian system . Because usually totalitarian and hegemonic status quo ,
so that the truth should not eradicate the emergence delegitimation
truths not just a single truth .
Modernity itself is marked with grands recits ( narrative ) or metarecits (
small narrative ) . Grand narratives or stories of big serves to direct and
animate modern society , almost similar to the underlying myths of primitive
society first . This big narratives have legitimized institutions and social
practices and political , legal and moral systems , and the whole way of
thinking . The difference with the myths are great narrative does not seek
legitimacy in an event that occurred at the beginning ( such as the creation of
the gods ) , but in the future , in an idea to be realized . This idea is
universal wherever applicable , one example is the emancipation of the workers
through the struggle for socialism . In the field of philosophy , modernity
project that culminated in Hegel that totally all the great stories .
Since its inception , the Enlightenment ( Aufklarung ) in the eighteenth
century , modernity is understood as a process of developing den spread of
Western rationalization to all aspects of human life and social behavior . The
basis of modern Western society mindset is rationality – empirical
has spawned a number of scientific and technological discovery is amazing, so
confirming the rationality of the theological truth . Rationality becomes the
sole measure for the correctness of modern Western society . Rationality hailed
as the last tool in explaining everything that is considered real or real .
This modern reality may be inspired by Hegel's philosophy , that everything
real is rational , and all that is rational is real . Means there is nothing
that can not be understood . Cartesian spirit of humanism is also a basis of
inspiration in this context . Cartesian modern urge people to see the reality
of this world as well as a giant clockwork without a spiritual element involved
in motion . Cartesian epistemology adored the subject ' I ' that is ' i am the
thinking thing ' , has made a kind of epistemological arrogance that reality
can be conquered by defining positively . Cartesian insight here is very
mechanistic , in the sense that rationality used as a single measure of ' truth
' and ' machinery ' used as a paradigm , in realizing the utopian dreams of
modern humanity and will power .
The hallmark of today is the big narratives were already losing its allure
as well as enthusiasts and becoming obsolete . That is the core of the
postmodern . Auschwitz ( the symbol for the slaughter of six million Jews by
the German national - socialism ) is a special paradigm that signifies the
failure of the project of modernity . Quoted from K Bertens ( 2006:386 )
Lyotard considers " the development of science and technology is a means
to aggravate the crisis , not decrease ".
The growth of science and technology has gone through tremendous human needs .
Science and technology , especially in the form of informatics and cybernetics
did not evolve as human needs , but according to the " performativity
" . That is correct it is what works or what it can do nothing . Can not
be said to bring advances in science and technology , which is often called the
technological advances that it resulted in a totally , in various forms of
totalitarianism , a widening gap between the rich north and the poor south ,
unemployment , and higher education crisis .
Postmodern is a reconsideration of the symptoms of the crisis due to the
application of the model in think rationality of modern Western culture .
Quoted from Yasraf Amir Piliang ( 1996:15 ) The only thing that postmodern
thinkers become the consensus is that modernity is stated to have lost their
critical ability , so that he could no longer find teleological and utopian
goals to achieve.
Postmodern era has the characteristics of what the truth is too large to be
monopolized by one system only and that the diversity of views was more
beautiful than unity but uniformity results were obtained even exploit fetter
the freedom of man .
Principles developed in postmodern epistemology is parology , especially
language approach . Through the method of language games Wittgeinstein ,
Lyotard describes the phenomenon of contemporary knowledge . Typical analysis
of language games is to open the perspective of consciousness in accepting the
reality of plural . He believes any actual knowledge moves in language games
each, as an example of a game of chess , each piece has a language and measures
of its own.
Lyotard also pay attention to the work of Immanuel Kant in the third book ,
titled Criticism over Power Considerations ( 1790 ) . Kant was the last word
for heterogeneity : gap between two or more parties are not likely to meet in
unity . Just as Lyotard thought that considers the heterogeneity can not be
eliminated , always stay a lot " language games " ( language game ) .
There are many genres de Discourse : There are many kinds of discourse .
Lyotard says that in the discourse that applies certain rules . Politics,
ethics , science , economic , juridical field , and the field of aesthetic .
All have their own finality . We must realize that we may not just switch from
one to the other .
EXAMPLE
The collapse of socialism, komunistis, where a rebellion against the party
of Communist laborers happened in Berlin (1953), Budapest (1956), Poland
(1980).
ANALYSIS
Seen here how great narratives that underlies and animates the modern era
that seeks to legitimize a future in an idea that should be embodied, is
universal and applies everywhere in the example above is manifest in the
emancipation of the workers through the struggle of socialism that has been
followed by many countries, but in the end we can see now it's not lured again
and started to be abandoned. Inni thing happens because the project of
modernity have been wound up. Instead of giving the progress of human
civilization, modernity is thus increasingly plunges man in a State of
dehumanization, the barbarians on the situation. A very real example is the '
auschwitz ' which is the symbol for the slaughter of six million Jews by the
nationalist-socialism, Germany.
CONCLUSION
It is a Postmodern era in which modernity ends. Where is increasingly
evident in a condition how project of modernity's bid to build a paradaban
forward with science and technology base thus raises its own problems. Thus the
SCIENCE and TECHNOLOGY base has been dragged into the abyss of modernity crisis
of society that had ruined the value of basic humanity. In this context is not
redundant if the promise of modernity to achieve emancipation from poverty,
ignorance, prejudice, and lack of flavor amanm no longer considered reasonable.
That's the argument that Lyotard menganggab modernity cannot be used anymore to
the contemporary.
I.
ONE DIMENTION
MAN (Herbert Marcuse)
THEORY
The issue that attracted the attention of
Herbert Marcuse and other critical figures in analyzing the theory of modern
societies is their attempt to peel the roots of rationality prevailing in
modern society . He considers that the rationality of modern society is the
main cause of the existence of oppression and enslavement of man by man , the
exploitation of man by man , and excessive exploitation of nature . The
rationality of industrial society has become ideology and only preserve the
established system .
Though the sense of the ratio itself is a cognitive ability to sort between
right and wrong throughout truth and error it is a state of Existing ( Being )
and in reality ( Reality ) ( Marcuse , 1964: 123-124 ) . Which eventually
shifted meaning , so that in modern times the ratio has stuck solely as a means
to achieve goals. Ratios were originally critical of the myth and all
autonomous power , has finally been served on the original power and
theoretical nature thus be turned into practical technical ratio.
Marcuse does not agree with the way Freud described the relationship
between the pleasure principle and the reality principle . Criticisms that
Freud decisive relationship between the pleasure principle and the reality
principle which applies to the present . Marcuse argued in our day the pleasure
principle and the reality principle can be reconciled , even basically the same
. The tension between the need on the one hand and on the other hand need
satisfaction will disappear thus human happiness would be assured .
1.
Analysis of advanced industrial society
From his book
Dimension One man can be concluded that one-dimensional human beings today who
is a critical analysis of modern industrial society .
Their thinking
is intertwined with Hegelian philosophy and Marxistis atmosphere , for Hegel
and Marx also saw philosophy as an attempt to understand the community and the
historical period in which they live . This conception of society in Marx along
with revolutionary spirit , that desire for philosophical thinking he can
contribute to the occurrence of radical changes in society .
2. Human oppression in the
modern industrial society
Principal
establishment Marcuse in One Dimension man is that man is a creature by nature
crave happiness and well above entitled happiness . Embodiment of happiness is
entirely dependent on the satisfaction of actual needs .
Characteristic
self-effacing in modern industrial society is the role of science and
technology . Rationality in our age of technological rationality . Everything
is seen and appreciated as far as controlled , used , manipulated , manipulated
and handled .
It should be emphasized that oppression in our time is not the oppression that
is done by man to man or group to group . However , there is a totalitarian
system that controls all the people . Technological system summarizes the
natural and social reality in his hands and no one can influence the system 's
anonymity .
Technological
system itself arouse human desires that the system can sustain themselves and
continue to grow .
In our own day
as he pleases man can get what he wants in the field of material , but he only
wants what is desired by the system that he wants. In advanced industrial
societies as humans caught in a circle , on the one hand to enable greater
productivity , the greater the consumption and on the other hand, the only
reason for the consumer is to ensure productivity .
3. Towards a new society
Marcuse keep
doing the technical basis on which society will come to reduce the work and
satisfy all needs . Science and engineering should not be discarded , but
should be changed qualitatively . In addition, given the direction or another
purpose , namely the Pacification of existence intention is peace and true
freedom .
1) Here Marcuse provide two
ways to fight for a new society , among others :
One should reduce the maximum power ( the reduction of power ) of them
political power , economic power , or the concentration of power in a system
where people locked up for this .
2) People should reduce the
excessive development ( the reduction of overdevelopment ) .
It was all
done to reject false needs that are artificially raised by modern production
system and abandon all efforts to further improve the quality of life . To
fight for a society that is qualitatively different , people should start by
reducing the quantitative .
EXAMPLE
People would prefer eating fried chicken at KFC than eating fried chicken
purchased from Mangkang market.
ANALYSIS
Based on the above examples we can analysis that it is rational, because we
can see the difference ranging from selling. KFC provided a place so
comfortable, air conditioned, where special seating, as well as the logo wall
decoration ranging from KFC to place drinking used also did not escape from the
KFC logo is branded just special places we could find it.
However, it
is not logical, because the price offered at KFC are much more expensive than
in Mangkang market. Whereas when compared the quality of taste of fried chicken
in the market is no less tasty from Mangkang on at KFC. People are just annoyed
ads on TV, making it more prestige eating fried chicken with KFC's logo from
the regular fried chicken. Means that more people are not logical, if packed
into KFC is not for the main purpose of eating fried chicken, but to buy the
prestigious KFC logo.
CONCLUSION
I.
TRUTH AND
METHODE (Hans Georg Gadamer)
THEORY
The development of the human sciences in the
nineteenth century entirely dominated by models of natural sciences .
The
problems is if one reckons the
humanities to measure a person's knowledge of the regularity of the mean does
not understand precisely the nature of the human sciences .
Gadamer wants
to oppose constructively empirical methods to enter the territory of the
humanities . To reach the truth in the context of interpretation , a hermeneut
must flee from the clutches of the method to later plunge amid the swirl of the
dialectic . Because, says Gadamer , employed the method actually hinder or
impede the truth , while the relentless dialectic collect fragments of truth
until it became " round and intact " .
Nevertheless ,
Gadamer is not anti - methodological. He argued that
any pretension methodology (positivistic or not ) is "
blind " if it sees itself as epistemology , which eliminates the
requirement of truth ( the true) a requirement that the correct ( right) of an
engineering application . Gadamer 's view of his work as an attempt to fulfill
the deepest aspirations of the methodology . Under this method , Gadamer wants
to explain the basic requirements for the emergence of the truth which is not
just a technique of something that is done the subject , but rather as a result
of something that happens without our will and something that happens outside
our actions .
To that end ,
Gadamer through a series of theories trying to explain the truth contained in
the humanities through a theory of hermeneutic experience consisting of :
1.
Art
The development of the
natural sciences led to a change in the assessment of human to other forms of
recognition that others , such as aesthetic experience . According to Kant ,
the art work does not reveal the truth , but only in interpret as mere
subjective because it only provides the pleasure of viewing . But Gadamer has
other opinions about works of art that the artwork can uncover the truth and
make us understand , therefore art including hermeneutics region .
2.
Prejudice
Hermeneutics freed from
the concept of scientific objectivity , as it is traditionally understood him
based on his character as the art and technique of understanding .
Comprehension involves some prejudice that give real direction to the
hermeneutic problem . As dictated by Gadamer introduction
stating that we can not escape from prejudice . Prejudice counts
the space to think , because if avoiding prejudice tantamount to turning off
the thought .
Prejudice means a
judgment given before all the elements of a situation that ultimately determine
the destination . So prejudice is not a false judgment , but it gives an idea
of where it has a positive value ( legitimate prejudice ) and negative (
prejudice is not legitimate ) . To achieve a positive value , prejudice must be
based on which enlightened reason that both methodological
can save us in error . While the negative prejudice caused by
excessive rigidity caused by faulty use of reason .
3.
Language
According to Gadamer language is the most difficult part of his philosophy and
raises a question mark . Language according to Gadamer actually not express the
thought , but as the object itself . Language talk about objects in the world ,
not a reality subjective.
An understanding of the
real truth is not based on " inner acquisition / experience " that
has been trodden by others , the intention is to understand or interpret what
someone says about the truth then we should not go back to the experiences that
have been passed by that person . Instead , we must begin to understand that
the language used in presenting the material as a whole . This is because the
thought process is understood as a process of explanation with the words , then
it becomes clear that a logical achievement can not be fully understood in the
sense of composition of objects as they appear on a reason or the experience .
Have a fundamental
understanding of the relationship of the language . The understanding is the
interpretation of meaning in the text as the contents of objectivity . To
interpret the text we have to translate it into our own language .
EXAMPLE
Examples of truth and method on the factory-made cosmetic products of
herbal cosmetics products.
ANALYSIS
Can someone define what he saw upon prejudices that done before. As a
layman, factory-made cosmetic products must be defined using the material,
technical and reliable equipment. Whereas if viewed from the composition is
also similar to the herbal cosmetic products. Only the specified composition
using scientific names make the belief about the ingredients that are used. The
definitions in the theory of Gadamer is referred to as a method. It is a word
that is composed in a language based on the subject of prejudice, in which case
this is a an herbal cosmetic products. These methods are arranged based on the
scientific method (a series of trials/research in real person), making that
method is a truth that can be accounted for based on the method of approach
hermeneutik.
Therefore, cosmetic products manufacturer is more trusted than herbal
cosmetic products because it uses way more reliable method than herbal
cosmetic products.
CONCLUSION
Theory of truth revealed by different
humanities and natural science . Systematic , science can be verified by
scientific methods / empirical data while the theoretical humanities
systematically truth can not use the scientific method . However , through a
series of art methods , prejudice , and the language of the theory of truth can
be proven to deliver real and an interpreter to the definition established interpretation.
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